CMC is widely used as an index of functional connectivity between the primary motor cortex and limb muscles, and Granger causality is used across many fields of science to detect the direction of coherence. To calculate CMC and Granger causality, we used electroencephalography

(EEG) to measure activity over the cortical region that governs leg muscles, and surface electromyography (EMG) over the right and left tibialis anterior muscles, Natural Product Library in 15 healthy term and preterm neonates, during spontaneous movements without any external stimulation. We found that 17 leg muscles (10 right, seven left) in 12 neonates showed significant CMC, whose magnitude significantly correlated with postnatal age only in the beta frequency band. Further analysis revealed Granger causal drive from EEG to EMG in 14 leg muscles. Our findings suggest that the primary motor cortex drives muscle activity when neonates move their limbs. Moreover, the positive correlation between CMC magnitude and postnatal age suggests that corticomuscular communication begins to develop during the neonatal selleck chemicals llc stage. This process may facilitate

sensory-motor integration and activity-dependent development. “
“Muscle β-catenin has been shown to play a role in the formation of the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). Our previous studies showed that muscle-specific conditional knockout of β-catenin (HSA-β-cat−/−) results in early postnatal death in mice. To understand the underlying mechanisms, we investigated the electrophysiological

properties of muscle cells from HSA-β-cat−/− and control mice, and found Protirelin that, in the absence of muscle β-catenin, the resting membrane potential (RMP) depolarised in muscle cells from the diaphragm, gastrocnemius and extensor digitorum longus muscles. Furthermore, in a primary line of mouse myoblasts (C2C12 cells) transfected with small-interfering RNAs targeting β-catenin, the RMP was depolarised as well. Finally, the expression levels of the α2 subunit of sodium/potassium adenosine triphosphatase were reduced by β-catenin knockdown in vitro or deletion in vivo. These results suggest a possible mechanism underlying the depolarised RMP in the absence of muscle β-catenin, and provide additional evidence supporting a role for β-catenin in the development of NMJs. “
“CCAAT enhancer-binding protein β is a transcription factor that is involved in many brain processes, although its role in neuronal survival/death remains unclear. By using primary cultures of rat cerebellar granule neurons, we have shown here that CCAAT enhancer-binding protein β is present as all of its isoforms: the transcriptional activators liver activator proteins 1 and 2, and the transcriptional inhibitor liver inhibitory protein. We have also shown that liver activator protein 1 undergoes post-translational modifications, such as phosphorylation and sumoylation.