The incorporation of functional neuroimaging into genetic studies is challenging. Since the expected effects of any single polymorphism are small, it is essential to pay close attention to experimental design in neuroimaging genomics. As highlighted above, it is important to use well-characterized neurobehavioral probes, and to evaluate and control confounding variables such as age, gender, basal abilities, performance, and clinical status. In addition, neuroimaging genomic studies require large samples

that can optimally be obtained by multisite studies. Such efforts introduce the additional variability related to scanner characteristics Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical and image acquisition. Nonetheless, the field is making rapid progress and is poised to make new discoveries that will illuminate neural pathways to specific features of kinase inhibitor Afatinib schizophrenia in ways that will lead to novel interventions. Conclusions

Considerable advances with fMRI have been made in efforts to elucidate the neurobiology of schizophrenia, and fMRI Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical has become a dominant method to examine brain systems. It provides noninvasive measures with high anatomic resolution, acceptable temporal resolution, and increasingly reliable quantitation. Abnormalities in schizophrenia have been documented at multiple levels of neurobehavioral processing and across several Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical neural systems. These abnormalities are manifested in failure of some regions to activate to a task, while other regions overactivate and there are alterations in the connectivity among regions. A clearer picture

of these abnormalities and their relation to genetic vulnerability, clinical manifestation, and the potential modulation with treatment will require the combined application of cross-modal measures. In this context fMRI will play a critical role by offering procedures Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical for establishing whether a specific neural system is adequately recruited for its role in the information processing cascade and whether it communicates adequately Inhibitors,research,lifescience,medical with other systems on which it depends, or that may depend on its output. Acknowledgments Supported by NIH grants MH64045 and MH60722.
Research interest in investigating brain abnormalities in schizophrenia thus waned until 1976, when the first computed tomography (CT) study showed enlarged lateral ventricles in schizophrenia.10 Following this study, a Brefeldin_A large number of CT and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies followed, with the first MRI study of schizophrenia conducted in 1984 by Smith and coworkers.11 The first quantitative MRI study of schizophrenia was subsequently conducted by Andreasen and coworkers in 1986,12 and the first quantitative MRI study that included contiguous slices of the entire brain and correlations with specific clinical symptoms was conducted by Shenton and coworkers in 1992.13 An example of a CT scan is depicted in Figure 1 , which shows a clear differentiation between bone, brain, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).