BOS was reported in 49% of patients by 5 years after transplantation and in 75% by 10 years, on the basis of data including more than 13,000 recipients who survived at least 14 days [1]. OB is an inflammatory and fibroproliferative disorder affecting small airways of the transplanted lung and has been generally considered as a form of chronic rejection. Increasing clinical studies have indicated risk factors related to the development of OB [2]. However, www.selleckchem.com/erk.html the specific pathogenesis of OB remains unclear, and further research is necessary to elucidate the underlying pathogenic mechanisms. Rodents, with the advantage of easy manipulation over a short-time frame, play an important role in OB

Epacadostat in vivo research. As an experimental animal in transplantation models, the rat has been highly recommended in the past [3] and [4]. The mouse, however, would be a much more valuable tool owing to the widespread use of genetically defined inbred and engineered strains, and commercial availability of various reagents. The orthotopic lung transplant in mice might be best mimicking the clinical surgery, but has the drawbacks of technical difficulty and

low level of reproducibility of OB lesions [5] and [6]. Therefore it has been generally used to study early postoperative problems, such as ischemia-reperfusion and acute rejection. In 1993, Hertz and colleagues implanted tracheal grafts into a subcutaneous pouch Casein kinase 1 of the neck of recipient mice, and successfully induced typical

OB lesions [7]. Afterwards, several transplantation models of a trachea in variable sites such as intra-omental [8] and orthotopic sites [9] and [10], as well as various modifications and variants [11] and [12] were developed by the other investigators. Although the distributions of cartilage rings and submucosal glands in mice trachea are like those in human small airways [13], some may argue that differences may exist in the mechanisms that contribute to the tracheal obliteration in this model as compared to the bronchiole obliteration in human transplant lungs. Moreover, different groups were inclined to investigate diverse issues through their preferred models, but all the models failed to perfectly elucidate the mechanism of OB. So in this situation, investigators were confused to choose the appropriate model for their hypothesis or specific question. In this study we combined orthotopic, intra-omental and subcutaneous tracheal transplantation, which have been well-established and reproducible OB models [9], [10] and [14], to investigate several basic pathologic changes during the post-transplant period. Each donor trachea was divided into three segments and then respectively implanted into three sites of each corresponding recipient. Finally, the morphological changes of the grafts on various days after transplantation were analyzed and compared.