In conclusion, poor outcome from pneumococcal meningitis in Malawi is likely to be multifactorial RGFP966 and our data

suggest that anti-cytokine adjunctive treatments in sub-Saharan Africa are unlikely to be effective. Alternative strategies such as pneumococcal vaccination in HIV infected adults, reducing pre-hospital delays to treatment, optimising in-hospital care, investigating alternative adjunctive treatments targeting pneumococcal toxins and optimising macrophage phagocytosis13, 23, 25, 26 and 27, should be on-going research priorities. The bacterial load work was funded by the Wellcome Trust (CDF 061231 and 089671/B/09/Z) (Clinical PhD fellowship to EW) and NIHR Biomedical Research funding to SG. The cytokine analysis was funded by the Wellcome Trust (Research fellowship to SBG). The steroid and glycerol adjunctive therapy studies were funded by the Meningitis Research Foundation. Neither the funding bodies nor

the trial sponsors had any role www.selleckchem.com/products/ve-822.html in the laboratory work, data analysis, manuscript preparation or decision to publish. The authors declare no conflicts of interest. We are grateful for the assistance of Professor Ray Borrow and Dr Malcolm Guiver of Public Health England meningitis reference laboratory for verifying the CSF bacterial load data. We thank Professor Tom Solomon for his help in obtaining ethical permission for the acquisition of normal CSF to validate the bacterial load assay and Chris Ambrose for his assistance with the laboratory work. Professor. J. Weiser kindly donated purified genomic DNA for the standard curves. “
“Staphylococcus aureus is an important cause of infections in both primary and secondary care. Carriage prevalences of ∼30% have been found consistently in studies

performed over six decades, 1 with the anterior nares the primary site of colonisation. 1, 2 and 3 Nasal carriers are at greater risk of infection than non-carriers 4, 5, 6 and 7 and the carried and invasive strains are indistinguishable in ∼80% of cases. 5 and 8 Non-carriers of S. aureus have a higher mortality following S. aureus bacteraemia Nintedanib nmr suggesting recent S. aureus acquisition around the time of infection is associated with poorer subsequent outcome. 5 The dynamic nature of S. aureus carriage creates complexity for cross-sectional and longitudinal studies, with people acquiring and losing all genotypes of S. aureus (the species level) and also acquiring and losing different genotypes within S. aureus. 9 For example, one study found multiple genotypes were present in 7% of carriage samples. 10 Rather than considering S. aureus loss and acquisition as separate events, studies have almost universally combined both these aspects and classified individuals as “persistent”, “intermittent” or “non” carriers.