galbus. A galI-disruption

mutant (SK-galI-5) is unable to produce galbonolide A, but can synthesize galbonolide B, indicating that galGHIJK is involved in the biosynthesis of galbonolide A. A disruption mutant of orf4 is severely impaired in the production of both galbonolides A and B. These results indicate that galGHIJK and the KAS genes are involved in the biosynthesis of galbonolides, although they are not colocalized with a multimodular PKS gene cluster. We further propose that a single galbonolide PKS generates two discrete structures, galbonolides A learn more and B, by alternatively incorporating methoxymalonate and methylmalonate, respectively. Galbonolides A and B were first isolated from Streptomyces galbus ssp. eurythermus Tü 2253 based on their antifungal activities against Botrytis selleck products cinerea (Fig. 1a) (Fauth et al., 1986; Achenbach et al., 1988). Galbonolides A and B were also isolated from Micromonospora

narashinoensis and Micromonospora chalcea, respectively, based on their activity against wheat stem rust fungus Puccinia graminis, and they were therefore named rustimicin and neorustimicin A (Abe et al., 1985; Takatsu et al., 1985). Furthermore, galbonolide A is also potent against several human fungal pathogens, including Cryptococcus neoformans, the causative agent of cryptococcosis. When tested against several fungal pathogens, galbonolide A was found to be much more potent than galbonolide B. It was later found that the selective inhibition of fungal sphingolipid biosynthesis, at the level of inositol phosphoceramide synthase, was responsible for the antifungal activity of

galbonolides A and B (Harris et al., 1998; Mandala et al., 1998). Based on their chemical structures, a multimodular polyketide synthase (PKS) system is predicted for the biosynthesis of galbonolides A and B. Clomifene In modular PKS catalysis, an acyltransferase (AT) domain in each module activates and loads its substrate, which is a malonyl-thioester derivative, on the cognate acyl carrier protein (ACP) domain. The malonyl-thioester derivatives include malonyl-coenzyme A (malonyl-CoA), methylmalonyl-CoA, ethylmalonyl-CoA, chloroethylmalonyl-CoA, methoxymalonyl-ACP, hydroxymalonyl-ACP, and aminomalonyl-ACP (Hertweck, 2009). The malonyl-thioester derivative, which is attached to an ACP domain, is incorporated into a growing polyketide chain through decarboxylative Claisen condensation. This C–C bond-forming reaction is catalyzed by a β-ketoacyl synthase (KAS) domain that is associated with the ACP domain. Application of the polyketide biosynthesis paradigm to the biosynthesis of galbonolides A and B led to the hypothesis that a promiscuous precursor selection, at the installation of C-5 and C-6, results in the concurrent production of galbonolides A and B (Fig.