It is possible the PM favors L-forms over sporulation as a mechanism to conserve energy and promote faster recovery [35].

Once the genes that control the transition to L-forms have been discovered, this hypothesis can be tested. Microorganisms are faced with the Selleckchem GDC-941 constant threat of invading foreign DNA, by genetic elements such as phages, plasmids, transposons and genomic islands [41]. However, in controlled environments such as the laboratory conditions used during directed evolution of this strain, these defense mechanisms may play a less important role in Mizoribine supplier survival. Of the genes which encode for various cell defense mechanisms, the PM downregulated the expression of 29 and 46 genes compared to the WT in standard and Populus hydrolysate media, respectively. There are three subgroups of genes that represent the majority of the cellular defense genes: CRISPR associated proteins, Hedgehog/intein hint domain proteins and phage related proteins. Together

these three subgroups make up 65 of the 94 cellular defense genes (Additional file 5). Odds ratios conducted on each of the three subsets of genes indicated that the difference of expression for each sub- group was statistically significant for both standard and Populus hydrolysate media comparisons. Although, defense mechanisms have their advantages, the PM may reduce the expression of the CRISPR-associated genes and Hedgehog/ intein hint domain protein in an effort to conserve cellular resources. Since the PM did not delete the CRISPR-associated 4SC-202 order regions, it still has the ability to recognize the foreign DNA. However, the reduced expression of these two groups of genes Montelukast Sodium may come at the expense of increased expression

of phage associated genes. C. thermocellum has 34 genes which encode for various phage-associated proteins which are not typically considered part of the cell defense mechanisms. The PM has an average 2-fold increased expression of 6 phage associated genes compared to the WT in standard medium which was deemed significant by the odds ratio. Conversely, the PM has an average 4-fold decreased expression of 16 phage associated genes compared to the WT in Populus hydrolysate medium which was also deemed significant by the odds ratio. The change in expression may be due to the increase in the expression of phage genes in the WT standard versus Populus hydrolysate media comparison below. C. thermocellum’s rapid growth on crystalline cellulose is facilitated by a membrane bound complex, termed the cellulosome which consists of cellulases and other polysaccharide degrading enzymes assembled together in large protein complex [12,42]. The primary scaffoldin protein of the cellulosome complex is attached to the cell wall and binds various carbohydrate degrading enzymes [12]. Cells are tightly attached to insoluble substrates via the carbohydrate binding module (CBM) often located at the distal end of the cellulosome complex [12].