The incidence of TDF-associated renal toxicity is low in clinical

trials and cohort studies of the general HIV Lapatinib nmr population [167, 168]. Older age, pre-existing renal impairment, co-administration of didanosine or (ritonavir-boosted) PIs, advanced HIV infection and low body mass appear to increase the risk of renal complications [148, 152, 164, 166, 169, 170]. ATV has been associated with reductions in eGFR [171], nephrolithiasis and tubulointerstitial nephritis [152, 163, 172], and CKD [151]. The incidence of renal stones with ATV in one cohort was 7.3 per 1000 person-years, with almost half of those who developed renal stones having eGFR <60 at the time of ATV initiation [173]. The nephrotoxic potential of both TDF and ATV is low in patients with normal renal function. However, in patients with CKD and impaired renal function (eGFR <75 mL/min/1.73m2), alternative ARVs should be considered. In patients undergoing renal transplantation, PIs give rise to challenging DDIs with calcineurin inhibitors (http://www.hiv-druginteractions.org). Post-transplantation, learn more acute allograft rejection and impaired renal function are common [174]. We suggest TDF and ATV

are avoided in patients who are waiting or who have undergone, renal transplantation, and that specialist advice is sought regarding choice and appropriate dose of ARVs. NNRTIs, INIs, ABC and 3TC have not been associated with CKD and can be used in HIV-positive patients with CKD. In patients with impaired renal function, specific ARV drugs (all NRTIs except ABC) may need to be dose-adjusted [175]. Impaired survival has been reported with ART prescription errors in patients crotamiton undergoing dialysis [176]. We recommend dose adjustment of renally cleared ARVs in patients with renal failure but caution against the risk of overinterpreting estimates of renal function for this purpose as true measures of renal function

may be substantially higher in patients with mild–moderate renal impairment. Specific ARVs that require dose adjustment in patients with reduced renal function include 3TC, FTC, TDF, DDI, ZDV and MVC (depending on PI use). For further information and advice, the reader should refer to the summary of product characteristics for each ARV. CVD is a leading cause of non-AIDS morbidity and mortality among HIV-positive individuals [177, 178] and an increased risk of CVD events has been observed when compared with HIV-negative populations [179-184]. This has been attributed to the increased prevalence of surrogate markers of CVD (such as dyslipidaemia) and the proinflammatory state associated with HIV infection. However, because ART may not mitigate (or indeed may exacerbate) these effects, caution is required in extrapolating from these makers to effects on overall mortality. The following recommendations apply to patients with, or at high risk, of CVD.