2%), neurological manifestations (15.3%), gastrointestinal manifestations (6.3%) and epididymitis (7.2%). Some manifestations are rarely seen, such as pleuropulmonary (1.8%), and cardiac manifestations (1.8%). Diagnosis is mainly clinical, on the association of symptoms, but diagnosis/classification

criteria may help. Sixteen sets of criteria were created for BD. The first was in 1946 and the last in 2010. The International Study Group (ISG) criteria, created by seven countries in 1990, had a low sensitivity and accuracy. The ICBD was created by 27 countries in 2006. It was revised in 2010.[5] In ICBD, skin lesions, vascular lesions, neurological manifestations and positive pathergy tests each get one point. Oral aphthosis, genital aphthosis and ocular lesions each get two points. To be classified/diagnosed as BD, a patient has to get four points (or more). Behcet’s disease manifestations are self-limiting, but recurrent. BMS-354825 in vitro Stem Cells inhibitor Some heal without a sequelae, but others are the main cause of morbidity, such as ophthalmological manifestations which may cause blindness if not aggressively treated. Some may cause mortality, as in some of the vascular, neurological, cardiac or pulmonary involvements. The first group of manifestations (healing without sequelae) may need no treatment if the frequency of their recurrence is low and

the burden acceptable when the lesion is active.[4] In the others colchicine is the main treatment, given at 1 mg daily, at night. If not effective in reducing the frequency of attacks, or their severity, low-dose methotrexate (MTX) with low-dose prednisolone can be given. The same will be given for genital aphthoses.

For resistant cases, pimecrolimus, an ointment for local application, may be effective. Skin manifestations may respond to colchicine. If they do not, non-steroidal anit-inflammatory selleckchem drugs (NSAIDs) or MTX with low-dose prednisolone will suffice in the majority of cases. Joint manifestations are usually transient and NSAIDs will work. In cases of chronic arthritis, the patient can be treated as with rheumatoid arthritis or seronegative sponyloarthritis. The second group, those with high morbidity or mortality, need aggressive treatment with cytotoxic drugs and medium- to high-dose steroids.[4] Pulse cyclophosphamide,[6] azathioprine, cyclosporine A, chlorambucil[7] and MTX[8] can be used, depending on the severity of lesions. Prednisolone has to be associated at 0.5 mg to 1 mg/kg of body weight. In resistant cases to cytotoxic drugs and prednisolone, a combination of cytotoxics can be used.[6] Another choice is the addition of biologic agents,[4],whether anti-tumor necrosis factor-α or anti-CD20. There are still no long-term reports or control studies for cytotoxic drugs or biologic agents. In this issue of the International Journal of Rheumatic Diseases, six papers on BD are presented.

The final review in this supplement examines the data concerning vaccine recommendations for international travelers, taking into account recommendations from the US ACIP and authorities in Canada and Europe, as well as specific destination country requirements. A. W.-S. serves on the Advisory Board for Novartis and on the Meningococcal Vaccine Initiative. She has received speakers’ honoraria and financial sponsorships to attend conferences from Novartis, GSK, and Sanofi-Pasteur. “
“Increased international travel raises the importance of accurate surveillance of travel-associated

gastroenteric pathogens to improve treatment and the investigation of cross-border outbreaks. This study found that 45% of Salmonella and 17% of Campylobacter infections in England were travel-associated, but only 29 and 3% of travel histories were accurately identified by national laboratory surveillance. More structured data collection UK-371804 mw KU-60019 in vitro forms and staff training may be needed to address this. Campylobacter and Salmonella species are major causes of diarrheal disease in the UK

with 50,000 and 10,000 confirmed cases per year, respectively.1 Both pathogens can lead to serious complications with associated excess morbidity and mortality,2,3 particularly in vulnerable population groups. Increasing resistance to antibiotics4 and chronic Salmonella carriage3 are additional problems. Accurate travel information is necessary to monitor emerging subtypes or antibiotic resistance patterns, Histamine H2 receptor to correctly interpret

output from national laboratory exceedance reporting tools5 (in order to direct further investigations into putative clusters) and to help identify and remove relevant exposures. It is also necessary for the surveillance and investigation of clusters in returning travelers and to distinguish these from infections acquired in the UK. Cases’ travel status is currently ascertained through laboratory surveillance, but the predictive value of this information has never been estimated. The aim of this study was to quantify the proportion of travel under-ascertainment for Salmonella and Campylobacter cases in the national laboratory surveillance system in England. In addition the proportion of foreign travel-associated salmonellosis and campylobacteriosis was estimated and characteristics of illness related to these pathogens described. We used data from the Coordinated Local Authority Sentinel Surveillance of Pathogens (CLASSP) study,6 a large, active population-based surveillance system in England. Detailed standardized questionnaires were administered to all the cases of laboratory-confirmed Campylobacter and non-typhoidal Salmonella infections in sentinel areas, and 11,523 questionnaires were returned from individuals with a recent history of campylobacteriosis and 2,393 from people with a recent history of salmonellosis (about 10 and 7% of all cases in England).

, 2010; Shamy et al., 2011). A number of studies using diffusion tensor imaging have also revealed that the integrity of white matter

is altered during aging in humans and nonhuman primates, particularly in the frontal lobe (Gunning-Dixon et al., 2009; Madden et al., 2009; Bennett et al., 2010; Giorgio et al., 2010; Luebke et al., 2010; Samanez-Larkin et al., 2012). In addition, aging is associated with an increased incidence of white matter hyperintensities (WMH) around the ventricles and in the deep white matter (Gunning-Dixon et al., 2009). Greater numbers of WMH and reduced this website white matter integrity were both found to correlate with poorer cognitive performance in older adults, particularly processing PLX3397 speed and attention (Gunning-Dixon & Raz, 2000; Madden et al., 2009; Penke et al., 2010; Hedden et al., 2012). Reductions in white matter integrity could affect the connectivity between distributed brain networks, and contribute

to some of the age-related changes observed in cognition (see Madden et al., 2009). In support of this, a correlation between white matter integrity in the genu of the corpus callosum, intrinsic functional connectivity, and choice reaction time has been reported for older but not younger adults (Chen et al., 2009). Older adults are more prone to have deficits in attentional control than are younger adults (Prakash et al., 2009; Hedden et al., 2012). They show a selective impairment in visual attention tasks in which the goal is to determine whether a target object is present among distractor objects that share features with it, a task condition called conjunctive search (Plude & Doussard-Roosevelt, 1989). Solving such a task requires subjects to intentionally focus their attention toward the various objects, a form of attention referred to as top-down (Talsma et al., 2010; Awh et al., 2012). A recent aging study found that under conjunctive search conditions there are differences between age groups in the power of gamma in the PFC–posterior parietal network. Older adults fail to show an increase in low-gamma power (22–34 Hz) in the easier task

condition (Phillips & Takeda, 2010) while younger adults show increases in low-gamma power at all difficulty levels of this task (Phillips & Takeda, 2009). This result adds further support Edoxaban to the inferences made in the imaging literature (e.g., Madden et al., 2007; Gazzaley, 2011) that altered PFC–posterior parietal network activation in older adults may be responsible for a less efficient top-down attentional control of visual search. Gamma rhythms have also been reported to be altered in aged rats. In aged rodents, behavioral slowing during decisions made in an extradimensional set-shifting task was found to correlate with slower gamma oscillations (30–100 Hz) in the anterior dorsal cingulate cortex, an area within the medial PFC (Insel et al., 2012).

We thank Dr Fuminobu Yoshimura and Ms Mikie Sato for help with PMF analysis. This work was supported

by Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research (to K.S. and K.N.) from the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology of Japan and the Global COE Program at Nagasaki University (to K.N.). “
“The iron-regulated surface determinant Pirfenidone research buy proteins (Isd) of Staphylococcus aureus are expressed during iron limitation and have been proposed to be involved in the scavenging of iron from heme. In this study, the genes encoding the surface proteins IsdA, IsdB, and IsdH were inactivated in order to determine their combined role. The triple mutant was found to have no defect in growth under any conditions of iron limitation tested. Also using a mouse septic arthritis model of S. aureus systemic disease, no significant difference in bacterial load was observed for the triple mutant, compared

with its otherwise isogenic parent. The Gram-positive pathogen Staphylococcus aureus is the most commonly identified antibiotic-resistant cause of infection in many parts of the world including East Asia, America, and Europe (Foster, 2004). The natural niche for S. aureus, however, is as a commensal in the human nose, being carried by approximately 30% of the population (Wenzel & Perl, 1995). Thus, it is extremely compound screening assay prevalent in the human environment making its eradication more difficult and contributing to potential infections. As well as being a commensal of humans,

S. aureus can cause a variety of life-threatening diseases (Emori & Niclosamide Gaynes, 1993). Thus, the organism is very adaptable colonizing a wide range of niches. Success of S. aureus requires the ability to respond to the host environment in order to grow and survive. A key nutritional factor that can limit the growth of bacteria in vivo is iron availability (Bullen, 1985). In fact, the sequestration of iron by mammalian hosts is a mechanism to stop the invasion of pathogens. Thus, iron deprivation is an important signal to which S. aureus responds using such regulatory systems as Fur (Horsburgh et al., 2001a). Fur responds to the lack of iron (as a marker of host interaction) by the derepression of a number of iron acquisition systems, including siderophore production and a heme iron uptake system (Heinrichs et al., 1999; Horsburgh et al., 2001a). Also negatively regulated by Fur is the expression of several surface proteins (Dryla et al., 2003). These iron-regulated surface determinants (Isd) are found covalently bound to the cell wall peptidoglycan, by the action of sortases, and thus interface with the external milieu. There are four cell wall–bound Isd proteins (IsdA, IsdB, IsdC, and IsdH) in S. aureus, and all have varying numbers of NEAT domains, which have been proposed to be involved in iron acquisition (Mazmanian et al., 2003).

Noncompartmental pharmacokinetic analysis was used to estimate PK parameters [area under the concentration–time curve

over 24 h (AUC0-24h) and maximal concentration (Cmax)]. These parameters were compared with historical values from the general HIV-infected population. Six subjects on each regimen completed the study. Compared with the general population, these elderly subjects had 8–13% decreased TFV AUC0-24h and Cmax, and 19–78% increased FTC and RTV AUC0-24h and Cmax. Decreased ATV AUC0-24h (12%) and increased Cmax (9%) were noted, while EFV buy ITF2357 exposure was unchanged (5%) with a 16% decrease in Cmax. Intracellular nucleoside/tide metabolite concentrations and AUC are also reported for these subjects. This study demonstrates that the PK of these ARVs are altered by 5–78% in an older HIV-infected population. Implications of PK differences for clinical outcomes, particularly with the active nucleoside metabolites, remain to be explored. This study forms the basis for further study of ARV PK, efficacy, and toxicity in older

HIV-infected patients. “
“HIV-2, which is closely related to SIV from sooty mangabeys, was first identified in 1986 in patients with AIDS in Guinea-Bissau and Cape Verde, West Africa. Like HIV-1, HIV-2 is an immunodeficiency virus that causes AIDS in humans. Natural Product Library research buy However, although HIV-1 and HIV-2 are related, there are important structural differences between them which influence pathogenicity, natural history and therapy. The HIV-2 epidemic has its epicentre in West Africa, and is also found in those countries that have had historical colonial links with the region, in particular

Portugal and France. Sociocultural Dimethyl sulfoxide issues such as civil war and migration have had major impacts on the spread of HIV-2. Recent data from Guinea-Bissau suggest that the incidence of HIV-2 is now falling, in contrast to that of HIV-1, which has remained stable since 1999 [1]. Diagnoses of HIV-2 are increasing in India but in Europe and the United States the prevalence remains low [2–4]. HIV-2 does not protect against HIV-1 and dual infection is observed. In the United Kingdom, approximately 137 HIV-2 monoinfections and 35 HIV-1 and HIV-2 dual infections have been reported to the Health Protection Agency (HPA) [5]. The most common mode of transmission is through heterosexual sex. HIV-2 is less infectious early in the course of infection than HIV-1, with a 5–10-fold lower rate of heterosexual transmission [6,7] and a 20–30-fold lower rate of vertical transmission [8–10]. This is likely to be a result of the lower level of viraemia observed in HIV-2 than in HIV-1 [11]. The rate of sexual transmission of HIV-2 is increased in the presence of other sexually transmitted infections, particularly ulcerative conditions such as herpes simplex and syphilis [12,13]. Vertical transmission has been reported in association with primary HIV-2 infection during pregnancy [8–10].

In particular, a study conducted in our cohort in the early era of HAART [13] showed that intolerance/toxicity was the main reason for discontinuing first-line HAART in the first year. Treatment strategies have evolved dramatically over recent years, and data are lacking regarding the possible impact of the use of currently recommended regimens in first-line therapy on

the incidence of, and reasons for, drug discontinuation. Therefore, the aim of our analysis was to investigate whether the incidence of first-line treatment discontinuations and their causes have changed according to the year of starting HAART. The study population was drawn from that of the Italian COhort Naïve Antiretrovirals (ICoNA) Foundation Bcl-2 cancer Study, a multicentre this website prospective observational study of HIV-1-positive persons which began in 1997 with the aim of following the enrolled patients for a minimum of 10 years. Recently it has been agreed to re-open enrolment and to extend the follow-up of existing patients to a minimum of 10 additional years. Patients eligible for inclusion in the cohort

are those who, for whatever reason, are naïve to antiretrovirals at the time of enrolment regardless of the stage of the disease. Demographic, clinical and laboratory data and information on therapy are collected for all participants and recorded online [http://www.icona.org]. All data are updated at the occurrence of any clinical event and, otherwise, at least every 6 months. When a patient discontinues a drug in Liothyronine Sodium the antiretroviral regimen, regardless of whether or not he/she switches to another regimen, clinicians are asked to report the reason

for discontinuation. A coded computer form is provided in which reasons for discontinuation are categorized as follows: clinical contraindication, immunological failure, virological failure, clinical failure, gastrointestinal intolerance, hypersensitivity, lipodystrophy, nervous central system symptoms, other side effects/symptoms, toxicity based on laboratory data (haematological, renal, hepatic, glucose/lipid metabolism or other), presumed cardiovascular toxicity, poor compliance, patient’s decision, simplification in the case of undetectable HIV plasma viraemia, change of drug formulation, changes in international guidelines, therapy discontinuation after clinician’s decision, therapy discontinuation after patient’s decision, and ‘other reasons’. The clinician is asked to choose only one of these reasons for each drug stopped. Patients included in this analysis were those who started HAART (>2 drugs) when ART-naïve before 1 January 2007, and who underwent at least one follow-up clinical visit after starting therapy.

41 (SD 0.5). The mean physicians global assessment and parent global assessment were 1.4 (SD 1.5) and 3.3 (SD 4.5), respectively. An ESR and/or CRP were not available in all patients. Correlations between active joint count, parental global assessment, physician’s global assessment, CHAQ and stress scores buy Compound Library are shown in Table 3. There was a significant positive correlation (P < 0.01) between parent global assessments and both the child domain and total PSI

scores with Spearman’s correlation co-efficient (rs) of 0.4 and 0.39, respectively. There was also a positive correlation (P < 0.05) between the child domain PSI score and the CHAQ score (rs = 0.31) and the parent global assessment and parent domain PSI score (rs = 0.31). The area of maternal stress in families coping with JIA has been poorly studied to date and most studies have not been able to compare stress levels to those seen in other groups. This study

utilized a validated measure to assess stress in mothers of children with JIA and the results were compared with those reported in similar studies of the selleck kinase inhibitor mothers of children with other chronic illnesses. Manuel et al.[15] looked at maternal psychological symptoms in mothers of children with JIA. They used a number of survey tools to assess maternal stress in mothers of children attending outpatient appointments. The mothers surveyed reported higher levels of psychological symptoms than a normative group. No comparison was made to any chronic illness groups. Lustig et al.[16] also looked at the mental health of mothers of children with JIA. They used the Psychological Symptom Index to assess maternal psychological symptomatology. They found that 53%

of mothers scored in the ‘high’ range of symptoms. They found this to be consistent with findings from mothers whose children had a range of chronic illnesses. However, the studies compared in Lustig et al. did not always use comparative measures of stress levels. The results of this study indicate that stress levels in mothers of children with JIA are higher than those seen in a control group of mothers with children without a chronic illness. Furthermore, selleck chemicals llc one-third of mothers of children with JIA experience stress at a level where professional help would be recommended. When compared to other chronic conditions, mothers of children with JIA reported higher levels of both parent domain stress and total stress than mothers of children with IDDM and profound deafness. They also had similar levels of stress (in the child domain) to parents of children with cystic fibrosis. These findings are supportive of previous studies that have also shown mothers of children with JIA to have increased levels of psychological stress.[15-17] Interestingly, maternal stress levels of JIA patients were not found to be higher than mothers of children with eczema.[14] The patients in the Faught et al.

gov/Blast.cgi), and the search for specific domains was performed using interproscan (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/Tools/InterProScan/). Alignments were generated using clustalx

1.81 or clustalw (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/Tools/clustalw2/index.html). The sequence of the SpHtp1 has been deposited in GenBank under accession number GU345745. RTG-2 cells were grown as a confluent monolayer in 75 cm2 in cell culture flasks (Nunc) and challenged with 5 × 104 zoospore/cysts at 24 °C. At several time points, media were discarded, except for time point 0, and 5 mL of Qiazol (Qiagen) or Trizol reagent (Invitrogen) was added to each flask. Cells were scraped loose with a cell scraper (Fisher) and the suspension was aliquoted as 1 mL portions into 2-mL screw-cap tubes containing 10–35 glass beads of 1 mm diameter (Biospec). Samples Selleck Galunisertib Ixazomib datasheet were frozen immediately in liquid N2. Frozen cells were homogenized in a Fastprep machine (ThermoSavant) and shaken several times at speed 5.0 for 45 s until defrosted and homogenized. RNA was isolated with Trizol (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer’s protocol, modified with an extra 1 : 1 (v/v) phenol : chloroform extraction after first chloroform addition. A similar approach was used for RNA isolation from zoospores/cysts and germinated cysts. RNA was isolated from mycelium and sporulating mycelium using the Qiagen RNeasy kit, according

to the manufacturer’s protocol for filamentous fungi. RNA was treated with Turbo DNA-free DNase (Ambion) according to the manufacturer’s protocol and checked for genomic DNA contamination by PCR with the primers used for quantitative RT-qPCR (Q-PCR). The concentration and purity of RNA were determined spectrophotometrically with Nanodrop at 260 and 260/280 nm ratios, respectively. Samples with a 260/280 nm ratio lower than 1.7 were discarded. Subsequent cDNA synthesis was performed using a First strand cDNA synthesis ALOX15 kit (GE Healthcare) with 3–5 μg of RNA per 33-μL sample using the pd(N)6 random hexamers according to the manufacturer’s protocol. Transcript levels of SpHtp1 were analysed with a LightCycler® 480 (Roche),

using the LightCycler® 480 SYBR Green I Master mix (Roche), with 1 μL of cDNA in a total of 10 μL and according to the manufacturer’s protocol. The reaction was performed with an initial incubation at 95 °C for 5 min, followed by 45 cycles of 95 °C for 10 s, 58 °C for 10 s and 72 °C for 5 s, respectively. A dissociation curve as described in the LightCycler® 480 SYBR Green I Master mix (Roche) was performed to check the specificity of the primers. The amplicon length and optimized concentrations of the primers were 104 bp and 250 nM for SpHtp1, respectively, and 129 bp and 400 nM for SpTub-b, respectively. To correct for differences in the template concentration, several reference genes suggested by Yan & Liou (2006) were tested initially (Supporting Information, Fig.

This in vitro study aimed to test the performance of fluorescence-based methods in detecting occlusal caries lesions in primary molars compared to conventional methods. Design.  Two examiners assessed 113 sites on 77 occlusal surfaces of primary molars using three fluorescence devices: DIAGNOdent (LF), DIAGNOdent pen (LFpen), and fluorescence Raf inhibitor camera (VistaProof-FC). Visual inspection (ICDAS) and radiographic methods were also evaluated. One examiner repeated the evaluations after one month. As reference standard method,

the lesion depth was determined after sectioning and evaluation in stereomicroscope. The area under the ROC curve (Az), sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy of the methods were calculated at enamel (D1) and dentine caries (D3) lesions thresholds. The intra and interexaminer reproducibility were calculated using the intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) and kappa statistics. Results.  At D1, visual inspection presented higher sensitivities (0.97–0.99) but lower specificities (0.18–0.25). At D3, all

the methods demonstrated similar performance (Az values around 0.90). Visual and radiographic methods showed a slightly higher specificity (values higher than 0.96) than the fluorescence based ones (values around 0.88). In general, all methods presented high reproducibility (ICC higher than 0.79). Conclusions.  Although fluorescence-based and conventional methods present similar performance in detecting occlusal caries lesions in primary teeth, visual inspection alone seems to be sufficient to be used in clinical practice. “
“International Journal of Paediatric Dabrafenib Dentistry 2012; 22: 191–196 Objective.  The aim of the study was to compare the production of proinflammatory cytokines during the initial phase of mucositis in patients with acute lymphoblastic leukaemia. Methods.  A randomized, controlled clinical trial was carried out. Cytokine levels were determined in blood and saliva using ELISA, three times after the administration of methotrexate and only once in the control group. Results.  Comparison of the results showed significant differences for IL-6 and TNF-α in blood and

IL-6 in saliva. Conclusion.  It would seem that 4-Aminobutyrate aminotransferase 96 h is an ideal time for determining the parameters evaluated both in blood and in saliva. “
“International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry 2012; 22: 250–257 Background.  Molar incisor hypomineralisation (MIH) is a condition which has significant implications for patients and service provision. Aims.  The aim of this survey was to determine the prevalence of MIH in 12-year olds in Northern England and to consider the relationship with socioeconomic status and background water fluoridation. Design.  Twelve-year-old children were examined for the presence of MIH. Participating dentists were trained and calibrated in the use of the modified Developmental Defects of Enamel index.

The assembled sequence was manually examined for errors. Potential genes were identified using blast and the annotation of significant hits was accepted. ORFs larger than 100 codons were identified using ORFfinder (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/gorf/) and codon usage table 4 (Mold, Protozoan, and Coelenterate Mitochondrial Code). The predicted exon–intron boundaries for three this website selected genes, cytochrome oxidase subunits 1 (cox1) and 2 (cox2) and the small ribosomal subunit (rns) gene were confirmed by sequencing reverse transcriptase (RT)-PCR products. Total RNA from fungal hyphae growing in 2% malt extract was obtained using TRIzol reagent (Invitrogen Corp.,

CA) and RT-PCR was performed using the Omniscript RT Kit (Qiagen Inc., CA) following the manufacturer’s recommended protocol. The primers HSP inhibition used are shown in Table 1. Intronic sequences were analyzed using RNAweasel (Lang et al., 2007). The mitochondrial genomes and annotation of P. ostreatus, M. perniciosa, S. commune, C. neoformans and U. maydis are available at GenBank (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?db=nucleotide) under accession numbers EF204913, AY376688, AF402141, AY101381 and DQ157700, respectively. The accession number for the T. cingulata mitochondrial genome is GU723273. The T. cingulata mitochondrial genome was assembled into a

single 91 500 bp circular molecule with a coverage depth of about 140-fold. blast comparison with other fungal mitochondrial genomes identified genes encoding 15 proteins and the small and large rRNAs (Fig. 1). tRNAscan-SE (Lowe & Eddy, 1997) identified 25 tRNAs in the genome corresponding to all 20 amino acids. We also found five ORFs not overlapping any other gene on either strand and larger than 100 codons (Fig. 1). However, these ORFs showed little similarity to sequences found in the mitochondrial genomes of P. ostreatus, M. perniciosa, S. commune, C. neoformans and U. maydis (Fig. 1, rings v–ix). Additionally, tblastx and blastn comparison of

these five ORFs with diglyceride the nonredundant database did not identify any sequence with an expected value of <0.1, further indicating that they may not be authentic. GC skew analysis has been used to identify the origin of replication in bacterial genomes (Grigoriev, 1998) and a similar technique has been proposed in fungal mitochondrial genomes (Formighieri et al., 2008). We were unable to detect any obvious origin of replication based on the GC content or GC skew analysis. Like the mitochondrial genes of the other Agaricomycotina, most of the T. cingulata mitochondrial genes are located on one strand. The only identifiable gene on the anticlockwise strand is the one encoding tRNATrp, which is found nowhere else in this genome. While gene order is not conserved among the mitochondrial genomes of T. cingulata, P. ostreatus, M. perniciosa, S. commune, C. neoformans and U. maydis, they share a similar set of genes (Fig. 2).