Knockdown of integrin α5 resulted in significantly increased motility, ANOVA (p = 0.007) while integrin α6 knockdown also increased motility significantly in one siRNA (p = 0.19 and p = 0.004), ANOVA (p = 0.04) (Fig 6B). Figure 6 A. Invasion through matrigel, laminin and fibronectin. B. Motility assay. C. Adhesion assay to matrigel, laminin and fibronectin. D. Anoikis assay of Clone #8 control, treated with scrambled

siRNA, two independent integrin ITGα5 siRNA targets and two integrin ITGα6 target siRNAs. Student’s t -test; p ≤ 0.05*, 0.01**, 0.005***. A slight decrease in adhesion to matrigel and laminin was buy Acalabrutinib observed although not significantly, while a significant reduction in adhesion to fibronectin was observed after integrin α5 siRNA treatment of Clone #8 cells (p = 0.02, p = 0.03), ANOVA (p = 0.02). Adhesion to matrigel and fibronectin was not altered with integrin α6 siRNA treatment; however adhesion to laminin was reduced (p = 0.08 Lazertinib and p = 0.01), ANOVA (p = 0.01) (Fig

6C). No significant change in anoikis response BIX 1294 datasheet was observed after either integrin α5 and α6 siRNA transfection, compared to cells treated with scrambled control (Fig 6D). Discussion One of the most lethal aspects of pancreatic cancer is its early systemic dissemination and tumour progression [24]. The inability to diagnose pancreatic cancer at an early stage has contributed to poor prognosis, as well as the difficulties in treating the metastatic disease. The exact mechanism of pancreatic invasion and metastasis has not been fully elucidated and a better understanding of these processes is essential in treating this disease. To study the inherent heterogeneity of differing sub-populations within a tumour, we isolated isogenic clonal populations from the human pancreatic cell line, MiaPaCa-2, by single CYTH4 cell cloning. Two sub-populations displaying differences in invasion were further analysed to characterise the in vitro invasive phenotype. Clone #3 was characterised as highly invasive and motile with decreased adhesion to ECM proteins. The less invasive Clone #8 displayed increased adhesion

to ECM proteins. Neither clone showed an affinity to collagen type I and IV. Grzesiak et al. [23] previously determined that the parental cell line MiaPaCa-2 does not express collagen-binding integrins α1 and α2, but showed that the cells are metastatic in an orthotopic mouse model and preferentially migrate on laminin-1. Although collagen type IV constitutes the major intrinsic component of the extracellular matrix [25], the ability of the clonal populations in our study to invade or/adhere to matrigel could be due to laminin, another major component of the ECM, and to a lesser extent fibronectin, which represents a significant step in metastasis [26]. Changes in adhesive characteristics, invasion and motility of cells have been suspected to play a role in mediating the spread of malignant cells.

2% ± 5.6% and 33.2% ± 1.0% viable cells in HT29 (fig. 1a) and Chang Liver cells (fig. 1d), respectively. In HT29 cells, this effect was due to a significant rise in apoptotic cells (fig. 1b), whereas Chang liver cells responded with significant www.selleckchem.com/products/JNJ-26481585.html increase in both apoptotic and necrotic cells (fig. 1e+f). In HT1080 fibrosarcoma cells, the strongest Selleckchem A1331852 reduction of cell viability was observed after 100 μM TRD leading to 26.8% ± 3.7% viable

cells (fig. 1g), mainly due to a pronounced apoptotic effect (fig. 1h). In contrast, both pancreatic cancer cell lines, AsPC-1 and BxPC-3, showed the highest response after 24 h upon treatment with 1000 μM TRD, resulting in 36.8% ± 5.2% (AsPC-1, fig. 2a) and 25.7% ± 4.3% (BxPC-3, fig. Selleck Lorlatinib 2d) viable cells. Interestingly, this reduction of cell viability was reflected by an exclusive enhancement of necrosis without any significant effect on apoptosis. The observed proportions of necrotic cells for AsPC-1 and BxPC-3 were the highest observed in this study (fig. 2c+f) (table 1). The results

for 6 hours incubation are provided in additional file 1 and summarized in table 1. Table 1 Effect of increasing Taurolidine concentrations on viable, apoptotic and necrotic cells in different cell lines.   HT29 Chang Liver HT1080 AsPC-1 BxPC-3 FACS analysis           Reduction of viable cells after 6 h TRD 250 TRD 1000 TRD 1000 TRD 100 TRD 1000 TRD 1000 TRD 250 Increase of

apoptotic cells after ifoxetine 6 h TRD 250 TRD 1000 TRD 250 TRD 1000 TRD 100 TRD 1000 TRD 1000 TRD 250 Increase of necrotic cells after 6 h Ø TRD 1000 TRD 1000 TRD 1000 TRD 1000 Reduction of viable cells after 24 h TRD 250 TRD 1000 TRD 250 TRD 100 TRD 1000 TRD 100 TRD 250 TRD 1000 TRD 1000 TRD 1000 TRD 250 TRD 100 Increase of apoptotic cells after 24 h TRD 250 TRD 1000 TRD 250 TRD 100 TRD 1000 TRD 100 TRD 250 TRD 1000 Ø TRD 250 Increase of necrotic cells after 24 h TRD 1000 TRD 250 TRD 100 TRD 1000 TRD 250 TRD 100 TRD 1000 TRD 1000 TRD 1000 TRD 250 Pattern of dose response (viable cells) after 24 h (FACS anaylsis) V-shaped V-Shaped Anti-Prop. Prop. Prop. Effect of increasing Taurolidin (TRD) concentrations (100 μM, 250 μM and 1000 μM) in different cell lines measured by FACS analysis (Annexin V/Propidium Iodide). TRD concentrations in μM with significant differences in viable, apoptotic or necrotic cells compared to untreated controls. TRD = Taurolidin, Prop. = proportional, Anti-Prop. = anti-proportional Ø = no significant effect Bold print = TRD concentration (in μM) with the highest reduction of viable cells after 6 h and 24 h. TRD shows specific patterns of dose response effects among different cell lines Dose response effects after 24 h were neither straight proportional nor uniform among different cell lines. The only cell line with an obvious proportional dose effect was BxPC-3.

To determine the effect of urea and nickel on production of urease, Epigenetics inhibitor medium was supplemented with urea (16.7 mM) or NiCl2 (up to 200 μM). Native and SDS PAGE Cell-free extracts from different biovars of Y. enterocolitica were electrophoresed on non-denaturing polyacrylamide gel [33]. Briefly, extract containing ca. 100 μg of protein was mixed with 1× tracking dye and loaded on 5% resolving gel in 380 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.8) with 4% stacking gel in 63 mM Tris-HCl (pH 6.8) in a mini-Protein III apparatus (Bio-Rad). Samples were electrophoresed with Tris-Glycine (pH 8.4) as the running buffer at 70 V for 2 h at 4°C. The gel was removed and equilibrated with 5-10 changes

of solution containing 0.02% CH5424802 solubility dmso cresol red and 0.1% EDTA until the entire gel turned yellow. After draining the solution, gel was flooded with 1.5% (w/v) solution of urea. The pink bands of urease were recorded by scanning (UMAX Astra 3600). Urease from jack bean (Sigma) was used as the

marker. SDS-PAGE was performed as per standard protocol [34]. Briefly, extract containing 25 μg of protein was boiled in reducing Laemmli sample buffer and Ispinesib mouse separated on 12% polyacrylamide gel. Isoelectric focusing (IEF) IEF of the cell extract was carried out in 6% polyacrylamide gel containing 2% ampholyte of pH 3-10 (Biolyte Ampholyte, Bio-Rad). 3-5 μl of extract containing ca. 20-25 μg of protein was loaded on the gel and focused at 4°C using a Mini IEF cell (Bio-Rad) according to the manufacturer’s instructions. After focusing, the gel was equilibrated with a solution containing 0.02% cresol red and 0.1% EDTA. Urease bands were visualized by superimposing the gel with Whatman No. 1 filter paper

presaturated with cresol red-EDTA solution containing 1.5% urea. Urease appeared as pink band against a yellow background. Broad range IEF standard with pI 4.45-9.6 (Bio-Rad) was used as the pI marker to determine the isoelectric point of the urease. Survival of Y. enterocolitica in acidic pH in vitro The in vitro survival of Y. enterocolitica was performed by slight modification of the method reported earlier [35]. Briefly, ten microlitre of the bacterial suspension was added to 1 ml of 20 mM sodium phosphate (for pH 2.5 and Niclosamide 7.0) or 100 mM citrate (for pH 4.0) buffer with or without 3.4 mM urea in 0.6% NaCl, and prewarmed to 37°C to give an initial count of ca. 7.0 log10CFU/ml. The contents were mixed and incubated with shaking at 37°C for 2 h. At the end of the incubation, samples were removed and diluted serially in 20 mM sodium phosphate buffer (pH 7.0). 0.1 ml of an appropriate dilution was plated on LB agar to determine CFU/ml. At conclusion of each assay, the pH of the buffer was recorded. All assays were repeated at least thrice on separate occasions. Statistical analysis The mean and the standard deviation for each data set were calculated using Microsoft Excel 2003 software (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, Wash.).

The NOF (in the US) advocates drug treatment in such patients without the need for bone mineral density (BMD) measurement,

except in young postmenopausal women [14]. The National Osteoporosis Guideline Group of UK recommends BMD measurement in patients aged between 60 and 80 years [15]. It should nonetheless be emphasized that treatment decisions should not be hampered by the unavailability of dual-energy X-ray machines for BMD measurement. A focus on BMD measurement prior to the initiation of anti-osteoporotic treatment in patients with a known history of fracture PI3K inhibitor may result in missed opportunities for treatment. Thus patients with hip fracture and satisfactory quality of life warrant treatment selleck chemicals llc to prevent future fractures. check details Unfortunately, the proportion of hip fracture patients prescribed with osteoporosis drugs remains low. In a report from Belgium, just 6% of previously untreated patients hospitalized for hip fractures were prescribed anti-osteoporotic therapy, with only 41% continuing treatment at 12 months: median treatment duration was 40 weeks [16]. Similarly, in a nationwide survey of 53,325 patients admitted with hip fracture to 318 hospitals in

the US, only 6.6% were prescribed calcium and vitamin D, and 7.3% anti-resorptive or bone-forming agents [17]. Despite limited data, there is apparently sufficient evidence to support initiation of pharmacological treatment for secondary fracture prevention in hip fracture patients. The objective PRKD3 of osteoporosis treatment is to decrease the risk of re-fracture. Additional benefits include improved quality of life, decreased risk of falls, and reduced mortality. Medical intervention includes non-pharmacological interventions, correction of reversible and secondary causes of bone loss, and anti-osteoporosis medication. Non-pharmacological prevention of fractures Nutrition and protein intake Adequate nutrition is vital for bone repair and to prevent further falls

but malnutrition is common in older men and women hospitalized for hip fracture [18]. A low score on the Mini-Nutritional Assessment is associated with a twofold increased risk of osteoporosis [19]. The relation between dietary protein intake and bone health is nonetheless controversial: diets high in protein have generally been considered to have adverse effects on bone health because the associated acid load may release calcium from the skeleton and cause bone loss. Darling et al. (2009) recently conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of both cross-sectional and prospective studies to clarify the relation between dietary protein intake and bone health in healthy adults [20].

coli tat mutants. BK designed and coordinated the study, and drafted the manuscript. All the authors read and approved the final manuscript.”
“Background TTSS plays a major role in virulence determination in pathogenic Shigella. The learn more expression of TTSS is regulated in response to environmental stimuli, such as changes in salt concentration [1] and growth temperature [2, 3]. This response to environmental factors is appropriate for the life cycle of Shigella, in which the expression of virulence genes is required for invasion and propagation in the host intestinal tract, but might be a potential burden for survival in the natural environment.

The genes Everolimus solubility dmso that encode the components of TTSS in Shigella are located on the virulence plasmid, and are controlled by two regulator proteins, VirF and InvE (VirB) [4, 5]. VirF, an AraC-type transcriptional regulator, activates the transcription of invE (virB) [4, 6–8]. InvE is a homologue of a plasmid-partitioning factor, ParB [7], and possesses DNA binding activity [9]. InvE activates the transcription of the mxi-spa and ipa genes,

which encode the components of TTSS, through competition with the global repressor H-NS, a histone-like DNA binding protein [10]. Recently, we reported that the temperature-dependent expression of TTSS is controlled at the post-transcriptional level, through the regulation of InvE synthesis [11]. The mRNA of invE is highly stable at 37°C, but stability decreases significantly at 30°C Enzalutamide where the TTSS synthesis is tightly repressed. Deletion

mutants of hfq, which encodes an RNA-binding protein in Gram-negative bacteria, restores the expression of invE and other TTSS genes at low temperature due to the increased stability of the invE mRNA. To date, a detailed mechanism of osmolarity-dependent diglyceride regulation of TTSS expression has yet to be elucidated. In the current study, we examined whether osmotic-dependent changes in TTSS expression involved post-transcriptional regulation. We present several lines of evidence that invE expression is regulated at the post-transcriptional level during TTSS synthesis in Shigella, and that the RNA chaperone Hfq plays a key role in regulating invE mRNA stability. Results Osmolarity and TTSS expression The expression of TTSS in Shigella is markedly reduced in low-salt LB medium [1]. However, it is not clear whether the critical factor for the decreased expression of TTSS in LB medium is low osmolarity or low-salt concentration. We analysed the expression of TTSS in the presence of several different osmolytes, but similar osmotic pressures. There was a difference in the growth rate of S. sonnei in LB medium in the absence (doubling time, 42.1 minutes) and presence (doubling time, 30.6 minutes) of 150 mM NaCl. To control for differences in growth rate in LB medium, we used yeast extract and nutrient broth (YENB) medium [12], since growth rate in YENB in the absence (doubling time, 32.2 minutes) and presence (doubling time, 31.

Sequence analysis identified numerous novel alleles and specific motif arrangements, with 113 of the 126 Pfmsp1 block2 allele sequences observed in Dielmo being novel. The RO33 types displayed novel point mutation polymorphisms. Compared to the reported sequences,

the K1 alleles from Dielmo were more diverse (higher number of distinct motifs), with more frequent usage of motifs 3 and 4, and with a novel K1-type motif encoding the SVT tripeptide (7). The Mad20 types were longer (more repeats per allele), used a restricted set of codons and particular motifs, with a higher occurrence of SGG-encoding motifs, more frequent use of motif 8 and fewer motifs 7 and 4. The MR family accounted for up to 13.3% of all Pfmsp1 block2 alleles from Dielmo, a lower frequency

than the 28-29% observed in a Kenyan holoendemic setting [11, 16]. We could #selleck randurls[1|1|,|CHEM1|]# I-BET-762 in vivo not identify any epidemiological parameter associated with the presence of MR alleles: there was no association with age, gender, ABO or Rhesus blood group. Interestingly, like the other three families, MR alleles from Dielmo presented specific characteristics. All harboured a RD5-type RO33 moiety, differing from most MR alleles with a worldwide distribution [11, 16]. Furthermore, DMR1 displayed a novel MR subtype with a 5 7 5 motif (Mad20 sub-group 1c) instead of a 8 7 5 motif (Mad20 Glutamate dehydrogenase sub-group 2c). In addition, a novel hybrid with a 3′ RO33/K1 hybrid sequence was observed. Whether this DMRK allele was generated by insertion of a SPPADA-encoding DNA segment within a MR allele (possibly MR6), or whether this element was inserted within RD5 before recombination with a Mad20 allele is unclear. Insertion of the SPPADA-encoding segment within any allele of the RO33 family has never been reported, but was observed within the K1-type in this study (allele DK67) and in other settings [9]. Observation of a single RO33 progenitor together with a single Mad20 progenitor led Takala et al

[16] to propose that the MR family arose from a single recombination event. The present data rather suggest that several separate recombination events involving distinct RO33-types and Mad20-types progenitors have contributed to the generation of this hybrid family. The characteristic of the Pfmsp1 block2 allelic repertoire in Dielmo is in line with the epidemiological conditions prevailing in the village. Unlike the surroundings where transmission is moderate and highly seasonal, transmission in Dielmo is perennial and intense [59]. Therefore, local transmission largely dominates over the import of alleles from the neighbouring area during the 9-10 months of the dry season. As such, Dielmo constitutes a transmission area where a high level of genetic diversity can be maintained.

Later, all heart rate data were averaged at 10 s intervals. In order to establish a reference #Transmembrane Transporters inhibitor randurls[1|1|,|CHEM1|]# for heart rate, we identified three zones of physical exertion based on the VT and the RCP: zone I, below to the VT; zone II, between VT and RCP; and zone III, above RCP. In addition, to estimate the total work load of exercise performed by subjects we used the training impulse (TRIMP) method by Foster et al. [22]. To calculate TRIMP, the score for each heart rate zone was computed by multiplying the accumulated duration in this zone by a multiplier for this particular phase, e.g. 1 min in zone I was given score of 1 TRIMP (1 × 1), 1 min in zone

II was given a score of 2 TRIMP (1 × 2), and 1 min in zone III was given a score of 3 TRIMP (1 × 3). The total

TRIMP score was obtained by summating the results of the three zones [(min of zone I HR [< VT] × 1) + (min of zone II HR [> VT - < RCP] × 2) + (min of zone III HR [> RCP] × 3)]. To estimate energy expenditure during the race, the individually derived linear relationship between heart rate and VO2 was used to estimate the oxygen cost during the work efforts (r2 = 0.988 ± 0.005). Two different individualized www.selleckchem.com/products/LY2603618-IC-83.html equations were established: 1) a linear regression equation for racing time which was derived from data during the incremental exercise test. We used an energy equivalent of oxygen based on the mean intensity during racing time (i.e. the non-protein energy equivalent corresponding to mean heart rate during the work efforts). This value was, on average, 0.02 MJ/LO2 (4.970 ± 0.048 kcal/LO2), corresponding to a RER of 0.941 ± 0.057 [23]. 2) A single exponential

equation best fitted to VO2 and heart rate was taken during the recovery period of the cycle ergometer test (r2 = 0.912 ± 0.015). An energy equivalent of 0.02 MJ/LO2 (4.825 kcal/LO2) was used, assuming a RER of 0.82 [23]. The rationale for much our approach was that athletes performed bouts of exercise in which the heart rate-VO2 relationship can be assumed to be linear, interspersed with periods of recovery and rest, during which the heart rate-VO2 relationship becomes nonlinear [24]. Statistical analyses Data are presented as individual values and means ± SD. A non-parametric Wilcoxon test was used to compare the energy balance and changes in body mass and exercise intensity during the event. In addition, differences between nutritional data during the first (1900 h – 0700 h) and the second (0700 h – 1900 h) 12 hour period were assessed. The main nutritional variables (i.e. energy, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fluid, sodium and caffeine) were correlated to speed and distance completed in absolute (i.e. km; km/h) and relative (i.e. % of decrease of distance and speed) values using Spearman’s rank correlation analysis.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) samples were prepared by mechanically rubbing the electrodes onto copper grids overlayed with ultra-thin amorphous carbon. Both selleck screening library bright-field images and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) spectra were obtained in the TEM. For comparison purposes, additional

nanowire electrodes were prepared, but no current was passed across them. Rather, one electrode was left in air and its sheet resistance was monitored over the period of 1 year. Other electrodes were annealed in an atmospheric furnace each at various temperatures and times. These electrodes were imaged in the SEM at various stages to see how the electrode morphology evolved throughout the annealing process. Results and discussion Electrode failure measurements An SEM image of a prepared nanowire electrode is shown in Figure 1a.

The transparency of all electrodes was nearly constant across all visible Idasanutlin cost wavelengths, as similarly found by other groups [3, 10, 11]. The electrodes prepared for the stability experiments had sheet resistances ranging from 12 Ω/sq (with a corresponding transparency of 91% at a wavelength of 550 nm) to 37 Ω/sq (with a transparency of 94% at 550 nm). Figure 1b shows the evolution of the voltage and surface temperature of a 12 Ω/sq nanowire find more electrode as 17 mA/cm2 of current was passed across it. As was typical with all samples measured, the voltage (and therefore resistance) gradually increased with time, Montelukast Sodium and then suddenly jumped to 30 V once the electrode failed. The power dissipated in the electrode is P = IV,

so with a constant current and a gradually increasing voltage, the surface temperature gradually increased over time as well until electrode failure. Figure 1 Silver nanowire electrode and its long-term characteristics. (a) SEM image of an as-prepared electrode. (b) Voltage and surface temperature of a 12 Ω/sq sample when a constant current density of 17 mA/cm2 was applied across the electrode. Figure 2a shows that under a constant current density, electrodes with a higher sheet resistance fail more quickly. Higher sheet resistance electrodes have sparser nanowire networks, and thus the current density in the individual nanowires is higher than in lower resistance electrodes. Joule heating is also higher in more resistive films, since P = IV = I 2 R. The surface temperatures immediately preceding the electrode failure of the four samples measured for Figure 2a, from the lowest to highest sheet resistance, were 55°C, 70°C, 100°C, and 102°C, respectively. Figure 2 Dependency of failure time on resistance and current density. (a) The number of days to failure versus sheet resistance, when conducting 17 mA/cm2 across samples with different resistances. (b) The relationship between the number of days to failure and current density, as measured with three different 30 Ω/sq electrodes.

As a result, there is increasing interest for sports nutrition product manufacturers

to undertake specific research to validate or support marketing claims. click here VIPER®ACTIVE is a specific sports drink produced by Maxinutrition Ltd. The product is a carbohydrate-protein-electrolyte (CPE) formula designed to support exercise performance, energy production, stamina and short term recovery from intense training. The manufacturer guidelines indicate a dosage of 40 g of the product (mixed with 500 ml of water) for use during exercise bouts, equating to an 8.0% concentration (or 7.1% for total carbohydrate). It is widely established that the ingestion of carbohydrate (CHO) during exercise can improve time GDC-0068 to exhaustion [1], through maintenance of plasma glucose concentrations, and increasing total carbohydrate oxidation (CHOTOT) rates [2]. Additional evidence exists that by increasing exogenous carbohydrate oxidation (CHOEXO) rates [3], beverages containing multiple CHO combinations may have further ergogenic potential [4]. The inclusion of essential electrolytes, namely sodium, into such beverages has also been shown to enhance or support higher hydration levels, or ingestion rates, during and post exercise [5–7]. There has been recent interest in the use of carbohydrate-protein (CP) combinations as a means to not only enhance time to exhaustion compared to a CHO beverage [8],

but also to improve post exercise recovery rates. It has been demonstrated [9] that the ingestion of a carbohydrate-casein hydrolysate beverage significantly enhanced late stage cycling time trial performance in comparison to CHO only; and attenuated post exercise creatine kinase concentrations along with subjective muscle soreness. The ergogenic potential of CP beverages firstly appears to be explained by the high CHO ingestion rates of ~60 g.hr-1, along with an independent Selleckchem AG-881 caloric advantage though the co-ingestion of ~20 g.hr-1 of protein. The innovation of nutrient timing has also implied the need for early carbohydrate Sclareol [10] and/or protein ingestion post exercise [11], particularly when repeated short term training

bouts are undertaken. Practical methods to support initial training bouts, as well as short term recovery are therefore warranted, including the assessment of specific formulas which utilise a complete array of essential nutrients, namely combined carbohydrates, essential amino acids and key electrolytes, that may enhance acute and repeated bouts of exercise. The aim of this study was therefore to undertake an independent assessment of the potential influence of a commercially available CPE beverage (VIPER®ACTIVE) on repeated submaximal physiological and work output parameters in comparison to a matched placebo (PL). A further aim was to assess the influence of both beverages on subsequent time trial performance following short term recovery.

We report here for the first time the detection of ST7 in an amphibian. Previous reports on the occurrence of S. agalactiae in frogs mention non-haemolytic GBS strains [18, 37] but all ST7 isolates in our study and in previous studies of aquatic S. agalactiae were β-haemolytic. Thus, it is unlikely that infections described previously in frogs were due to

ST7. Like most ST7 isolates in our study, the frog isolate originated from Thailand, where this ST is common in farmed tilapia (Figure 1). S. agalactiae has been isolated from captive and wild dolphins [17, 38]. ST7 was cultured from a bottlenose dolphin SU5416 (Tursiops truncates) that died during the Kuwait Bay fish kill but no definitive link between bacterial isolation and death could be established [38]. Similarly, we describe the first case of ST399 in a free-ranging bottlenose dolphin calf from Scotland Talazoparib order without definitive evidence of a causal association with the animal’s death, which was attributed to Lonafarnib order trauma and infanticide. ST399 is a rare SLV of ST12 and does not appear to be closely related to ST7 in eBURST analysis of the current MLST database (Figure 2). However, ST399 is a DLV of ST7 and alternative methods,

e.g. clustering of MLST data using the unweighted pair group method, suggest that ST399 should be classified as a member of CC7 [39]. Due to the low number of dolphin VAV2 isolates available, it is not possible to determine whether the isolation of two CC7 strains from temporally and geographically unrelated dolphins is coincidental

or reflective of a host predilection. Like ST7, ST399 may occur as a vaginal coloniser in healthy women [39]. Thus, its presence in sea water could result from microbial contamination by human effluent. S. agalactiae ST23 is associated with humans and seals but not with fish Streptococcus agalactiae has been detected in grey seals (Hallichoerus grypus) and in Antarctic fur seals (Arctocephalus gazelles) but those descriptions predate the development of MLST [40, 41]. S. agalactiae was identified in 9 grey seals under the Scottish Strandings Scheme whereas examination of a larger number of common seals (Phoca vitulina) under the same Scheme failed to recover S. agalactiae, suggesting that among Scottish pinnipeds, S. agalactiae has a preference for grey seals. Complete molecular typing data was available for 6 isolates, which are included in the current study, whilst MLST data was available for the remaining 3 isolates. One of the grey seals had died of a systemic infectious process, whilst other animals with S. agalactiae died with signs of storm damage, hypothermia, starvation, trauma or lung emphysema, in agreement with previous studies [40, 41]. All seal isolates (n = 9) belonged to ST23. Within ST23, molecular serotypes Ia and III predominate [1, 14].